Organic cotton: from field to final product
Edited by Dorothy Myers and Sue Solton
Preface
Why this book?
THE PURPOSE OF this book is to draw attention to organic cotton production and processing. Organic agriculture provides important environmental, economic and social benefits compared with conventional cotton production. It is hoped that the book will be of interest to those contemplating involvement in organic cotton at the production, processing or consumption level. It is also intended to appeal to a wider audience, both North and South, including policymakers, journalists, those involved in industry and commerce, farmers' organizations, environmentalists, agronomists and informed consumers.
Commercial organic cotton production is a new area of activity - barely 10 years old - and is still very much 'work in progress'. Research and analysis are at an early stage and little relevant written material exists. This first book on the subject draws together experience from a diversity of sources with the objective of providing a comprehensive overview. Chapters are arranged according to the stages in the 'cotton chain', from farmer to consumer, and are intended to cover topics as authoritatively as possible. Illustrative case study material is particularly important and forms a substantial proportion of the text. Most of the current organic cotton projects worldwide are discussed.
The book summarizes the problems of the dominant cotton production system and the current state of organic production, processing and use (Chapters 1 and 2) with a special focus on small-scale farming systems in developing countries. Technical aspects of production are covered in Chapter 3, and Chapter 4 looks at project support requirements. Problems at the processing level, and approaches which are more environmentally responsible, are discussed in Chapter 5. The book also examines economic and marketing aspects and developments in regulatory systems (Chapters 6, 7 and 8). Case study material is drawn from both well-established projects and experimental projects, to present an overview of developments to date (Chapters 9 to 14 and throughout). Perspectives on current problems and future developments are reviewed in Chapter 15 and resources available to those who wish to pursue the topic further are listed in the appendices.
The conventional cotton 'chain' from farmer to consumer is notoriously complex and lacking in transparency. Cotton fibre, yarn, fabrics and clothing are moved around the globe, with those involved usually having no knowledge of the origins or final destination of the goods that they are handling. The new developments in organic cotton production and processing are often more open and less complex but it is nevertheless a multi-faceted story. This is reflected in the numerous and varied contributions to the book from a wide array of sources and experiences - from agriculturalists, researchers, certifiers, industrialists and business people (see the appendices). The process of gathering, systematizing, consolidating and checking such a diverse collection of material has been a long and challenging task, but has hopefully also served the purpose of linking many of the actors in the system and building capacity to tackle problems and move ahead. To this extent, the book is both product and process.
The future
What is described in this book is only a beginning. Much, much more is still to be done if the experience developed so far is to be built upon to make an impact on the conventional cotton production and processing system. There are indications that environmentally responsible textiles are moving from the niche market into the mainstream (Chapter 8). However, there are still few answers and many questions. Existing experience needs to be carefully analysed and further research topics identified. Social aspects, including the gender implications of the changes taking place, especially at the household and community level in the South, have received little attention so far and must be investigated and acted upon (Chapter 1).
The dissemination of information and experience in suitable forms to growers, consumers, policymakers, companies and governments is vitally important, as is raising consumer awareness and developing markets both internationally and domestically. We hope Organic Cotton will make a contribution to that process. In a rapidly changing area of activity such a book can quickly become out of date. We therefore invite readers to contribute to the process with a view to producing future editions. Please send any relevant material to: The Cotton Project, the Pesticides Trust, Eurolink Centre, 49 Effra Road, London, SW2 1BZ, UK.
Terminology
The editors have found, in the process of compiling this book, that a multiplicity of terms are in general use. Further confusion arises from linguistic and regional differences. Decisions had to be taken early in the editing process about standardizing terminology.
'Production' is used to describe agricultural production and 'processing' is used to describe the transformation which takes place after the cotton crop is harvested. At the production, or growing, end of the cotton chain, 'conventional' cotton production describes the current dominant production system, which is dependent on synthetic chemical inputs. 'Organic agriculture' is used to describe various systems for producing food and fibre according to specific established standards and certified as such (see Chapter 6) which promote environmental, social and economic health. This does not imply that all those millions of farmers who practise 'sustainable' forms of agriculture which are free of synthetic chemical inputs are not following 'organic' principles, but for present purposes 'organic' is used only to describe systems and products which are certifiable. The farms of producers who have made the positive choice to convert their production to an organic system are referred to as 'in-conversion', which involves going through a conversion period before products can be certified as fully organic. In the USA, this period is termed 'transitional'.
There are also references in the book to 'biodynamic' agriculture, a system which developed out of the teachings of Rudolf Steiner, founder of the anthroposophical movement, in the mid-1920s. Many basic elements - including approaches to soil fertility, botanical diversity in rotations, use of farm-produced manures and cultural practices - are common to both organic and biodynamic agriculture. Biodynamic agriculture has some features which distinguish it from organic agriculture including, for example, emphasis on the use of special biodynamic preparations.
Whereas organic agricultural production systems have been described and measured and a terminology has been established, the situation is much more complex and confused in cotton processing and marketing. At the height of the 'eco-trend' (a period in the early 1990s when environmental considerations had an influence over a wide-range of consumer choices from food to clothing), a plethora of descriptions and labels appeared to describe textiles which may, or may not, have been processed in more environmentally benign ways. Terms such as 'natural', 'ecological', 'eco-friendly', 'clean', 'green' and 'hand-picked' have been widely used to market products in the North and have led to widespread customer confusion. The term 'environmentally responsible' is used throughout the book to describe processes which have taken some steps towards reducing environmental impact. The textile products from these processes are described in this context as 'eco-textiles'.
Finally, there has been considerable interest in recent years in the use of cotton varieties which are grown for their colour. Many terms have been used for this type of cotton including 'naturally coloured' and 'colour-grown'. The term 'naturally pigmented' is used in the book to distinguish these types of cotton from cotton which has been naturally coloured through environmentally responsible dyeing.
The reader is also referred to the Glossary.
Dorothy Myers, The Pesticides Trust,
and Sue Stolton, Equilibrium Consultants.
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Acknowledgements
THIS BOOK IS THE RESULT of the collaborative efforts of many people, all of whom are participants in some way or other in the organic cotton chain. In particular, we recognize the daily efforts of farmers, workers in processing factories, those involved in design and manufacturing and all the other steps in the cotton chain who carry out the day-to-day work of producing textiles and clothing. In realizing this project, we are indebted to a large number of people who have contributed in many different ways on the basis of their varied experience. We want to thank all of them for their contributions, and for their patience. First of all, they include the following.
Bo van Elzakker who worked on developing the book idea with the Pesticides Trust, provided ideas and information, contributed a major part of the text and, at key stages, read and commented on several draft versions of the whole book; Lynda Grose who helped assemble material from the United States and contributed text and comments; Nathan Boone who contributed text and comments on drafts; Ros David, Barbara Dinham, Nigel Dudley, Jules Pretty and Margaret Reeves who read and commented on drafts of the whole book; and Kristina Plenderleith who edited the case study material.
We would like to thank the many people who have contributed chapters or parts of chapters or provided comments on chapters. They are: Stephan Bergman, Tadeu Caldas, Richard Charity, Alexander Daniel, Ernst Ehrismann, Ahmed El-Araby, Kate Fletcher, Bernward Geier, Polly Goldman, Luis Gomero, Susanne Hagenfors, Dan Imhoff, Norberto Mahalambe, Klaus Merckens, César Moràn, Fortunate Nyakanda, Bo Ottosson, Sam Page, LaRhea Pepper, Gerd Ratter, Gunnar Rundgren, Mayumi Morizane-Saito, Kevin Sweeney, Sean Swezey, Abou Thiam, Peter Ton, Ngone War Toure, Roberto Ugàs, Jill Vlahos, Simplice Davo Vodouhe, James M. Vreeland Jnr, Nicole Waayer and Brent Wiseman.
In addition, many people have contributed information or comments and we would like to thank them all. They are:
Uygun Aksoy, Celik Aruoba, Rainer Bächi, Christine Bärlocher, Birgit Boor, Mike Brown, Ute auf der Bücken, Rafiq Chaudhry, Dimitris Dimitriadis, Jürgen Ehlenburg, Atila Ertem, Bakary Fofana, Harry de Vries, Peter Förster, Richard Göderz, Sally Gurley, Roxanne Halper, Oliver Hanschke, Ulrich Helberg, Iqbal Javaid, Per Jiborn, Sergio Kalierof, David Katz, Onno Kuik, Wilfried Leupolz, James Liebmann, Dagmar Parusel, Pedro Jorge B. F. Lima, Alfonso Lizàrraga, Therese Malmestrom, Robert Mensah, Andreas Scharf, Ulrike Schönherr, Demba Sy, Micha Tiser, Marck van Esch, Wilhelm Giesbrecht Wiebe and Emelda Wingwiri.
The lists above are very long and aim to be comprehensive but mistakes happen and we apologize for any errors of ommission or accuracy. Contact details for many of the contributors can be found in the appendices.
The Pesticides Trust is grateful to its donors for support for the Cotton Project of which this book is a part. They are Comic Relief, Novib, the Rausing Trust, The Patagonia Foundation, Ralph Lauren and Katherine Hamnett Limited. Special thanks is due to the GTZ projects ISAT/GATE, PSM Service Project, TOEB, and Protrade which supported the book project specifically and to IT Publications for their sympathetic collaboration.
Finally, we would like to thank colleagues at the Pesticides Trust and within the Pesticides Action Network, and Equilibrium Consultants for their support and encouragement over the past two years of work on this project. Our hope is that this first book on organic cotton will lead to further expansion of the work and publications on the topic.
Dorothy Myers, The Pesticides Trust,
and Sue Stolton, Equilibrium Consultants.
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Chapter 1
Organic Cotton: A more sustainable approach
DOROTHY MYERS
'Alternative production methods are needed which entail distinct environmental benefits which can be defined in transparent terms and which can be made attractive to producers. ... A production method designed for the economic, ecological and socio-political conditions of a producing area would be ideal. The ultimate goal of complete sustainability will not be easily attained, but organic cotton growing comes close to this goal.' de Vries and Kox (1995)
Textiles, cotton and organic cotton
TEXTILES FULFIL a basic need, and textile production is as old as history itself. Cotton has always been a major part of the textile industry, and today provides about half of all global fibre requirements. By comparison, wool, silk and flax together provide only about 10 per cent. Cotton has a very long history as a source of fibre for clothing and other textiles, going back several thousand years in parts of the world such as India, the Nile valley and Peru. Two centuries ago, the mechanized cotton textile industry was the prime mover in the Industrial Revolution, with all the problems and possibilities that this created. Although it has a reduced relative significance in most of the industrialized economies today, it continues to play a very important role in the economies of the developing and newly industrializing countries.
Despite inroads made into cotton textile production by synthetic fibres, cotton has been successfully promoted in many countries in recent decades as a 'natural' fibre. The conditions of production and processing are often far from 'natural', however, and are largely unknown or ignored by the consumers of textile products.
The catalogue of environmental, health and economic problems described in the following chapter has become increasingly recognized. Conventional cotton production is now often viewed as a risky business. Efforts to tackle the problems inherent in conventional cotton production have focused on ways of reducing pesticide resistance in insects and minimizing the environmental impacts of chemicals rather than on eliminating them through alternative production systems. Organic production offers several advantages to farmers in industrialized countries and especially to small farmers in developing countries. It is a safe and environmentally responsible production method. Organic production is a system that can provide not only export crops for cash, but also good quality food for household and local consumption through the use of rotations (see Chapter 3). In this way food security issues are also addressed. The output can be judged and measured according to clearly established standards and can, on this basis, be sold as a certified product, often for a premium (see Chapter 6).
By comparison with these immediate cash benefits, the environmental and health benefits are less readily quantifiable and much longer term, and include improved health of soil, plants, animals and people. Improved knowledge and experience of the management of agricultural ecosystems and of the production-processing-manufacturing-distribution chain are also reported benefits of organic systems.
Movements for change
Interest in organic cotton has been fostered by a growing appreciation of the problems of conventional production and a wider recognition of the potential benefits of organic production. Opportunities for change have been created in several ways in the past decade, and momentum has been generated by a wide range of concerns. First, and most important, there are those involved in actual production in the field who are concerned about the effects of what they do on health, the environment of their communities and on their household economy. Secondly, there are those involved in the textile industry who are concerned about the polluting nature of the processes they carry out, and are under increasing pressure from environmental regulators (Chapters 5 and 6). Thirdly, there is a growing body of informed consumers who are ready to take environmental and social issues into account in their buying preferences (Chapter 8). Finally, having seen the failures and limitations of modern, conventional agriculture, there are groups involved in promoting alternative, more sustainable forms of agricultural at both a practical and policy level.
Expanding technical knowledge and expertise has also increased opportunities for change. Knowledge of biological pest control methods, for example, is expanding in some regions because of farmers' improved confidence in using their own traditional methods. Efforts are being made to exchange information and disseminate knowledge for the benefit of a wider audience.
Farmers' choices
Farmers can benefit in many ways from organic production systems. Especially in the South, they gain an improved understanding of agricultural ecosystems and the opportunity to draw on traditional farming knowledge, a good level of support from new and more supportive extension arrangements, help with capacity building and reduced dependency on state systems, premium prices, and improved environmental and working conditions - safer for themselves and their animals. Removal of input subsidies in many countries has led to increases in the cost of pesticides and fertilizers, which are not necessarily offset by increased income. Experience to date shows that farmers are more than ready to contemplate new systems if they are not locked into a state production system and are thus able to make their own choices, receive the support they need when converting, and find new markets. Organic systems can be of special interest to women farmers who often lack access to financial resources necessary for the purchase of inputs (see box).
Economic reasons are central to farmers' decisions to convert to organic systems. Provided that premiums can be passed down to their level, farmers appear to be ready to make changes in spite of increased risks in the short term. In the open economies, notably the USA, cotton farmers are excessively dependent on pesticides and are seeking ways of reducing the spiralling costs that they entail.
Companies
Companies are increasingly being called to account for their social and environmental performance through consumer pressure. They also face increasingly stringent environmental regulation. Engaging in the organic sector provides an opportunity to companies in the North to respond to increasing environmental and social demands.
Acknowledging gender in the cotton chain
Some of the groups involved in organic cotton projects are attempting to look at the development from a gender perspective. Participants in the Pesticides Action Network (PAN), for example, have committed themselves to strengthening gender awareness in the work they do and are actively seeking ways to put this commitment into practice. It has been increasingly recognized in development work in recent years that women's issues cannot be considered separately from those of men, for to do so can sideline the interests of women. Both must be looked at together.
It is important to try to establish the different gender roles in relation to access to resources, reproduction, production, community activities and decision-making processes. In seeking to implement gender-awareness in relation to organic cotton production and processing, it is necessary to look at the whole chain. For example, many women are cotton farmers and are heavily involved in manufacturing, in designing, in the fashion industry and in retailing.
A start has been made in implementing gender awareness at the field level in Senegal and in Zimbabwe (see Chapter 14). First, it is necessary to build documentation systems which are gender sensitive. This means collecting data in a gender-disaggregated way, and requesting information from men and women separately. A gender perspective can be included in terms of the management of various aspects of projects. Many farmers are women and the needs of women farmers for extension advice and assistance, for credit and other services, and for training, should be given equal priority to those of men. In Zimbabwe, for example, AIDs widows are joining the organic cotton project because they do not have to buy inputs, use less labour and want to attend the farmer field schools because it provides an opportunity for learning, joint decision-making and other kinds of support.
Although still at a very early stage with much work to be done, a gendered approach to projects will ensure that social, as well as environmental considerations are taken into account in organic production and processing. |
In the debate about trade and environment, developed countries are often seen as protectionist, applying increasing environmental regulation as a way of keeping out developing country exports. Textiles is one such sector. A recent report by the International Institute for Environment and Development suggests, however, that developing country producers can also benefit from increased environmental expectations in their export markets if they are able to adapt. The export of organic cotton fibre, yarns and textiles is an example.
In seeking to source environmentally responsible products in countries of the South, companies are looking to countries where open economies permit their trading partners to fill their requirements. Until fairly recently, the level of state involvement in cotton production in most Southern countries would not have permitted the development of organic cotton projects. Trade liberalization has provided export opportunities which did not previously exist. At the same time, textile companies in the North, especially in Europe, are seriously threatened by competition from countries of the South, especially Asia. They are being forced to streamline their operations and become more specialized in order to survive. Becoming involved in organic cotton is one way of creating a comparative advantage.
Consumer pressure
In the North, consumers are increasingly concerned about the environmental impact of their lifestyles and consumption patterns. This growing awareness is being translated into changes in buying patterns and demands being placed on companies through the market place. The burgeoning demand for organic food in supermarkets in Europe and the USA is an example. Consumers are not only interested in the environmental impact of the goods they consume, but also about their social impact, which is expressed through a growing interest in fairly traded goods. The approaches taken in many organic cotton projects are intended to create a more equitable distribution of benefits, including better returns at the farmer level. There is much interest among the Fair Trade organizations in including organic standards within their criteria.
Promoting change
Having understood that existing cotton production systems have serious limitations, many organizations both North and South are interested in change. The organic movement is interested in expanding new areas of organic production. Environmental groups are interested in pesticide reduction or elimination and development agencies are expressing their interest through support for environmentally responsible and economically viable forms of trade, development and agriculture.
NGOs have already played an important role in some countries by working with other sectors to stimulate markets and policy change. They also have an important role in keeping information flowing, especially where there may be tendencies, for commercial reasons, to inhibit information availability.
Progress in organic cotton developments
The first serious attempt at organic cotton production began in Turkey in the late 1980s, by a European co-operative of five organic food importers called the Good Food Foundation (GFF). Farmers were already active in organic food production (chickpeas, durum wheat, soya) and, familiar with cotton production, had wanted to expand their rotation to include organic cotton. The GFF wanted to demonstrate that organic farming need not be limited to food production and the farmers were ready to experiment.
A Dutch company, Bo Weevil, was formed to deal with the organic cotton production on GFF farms and to develop and market a range of products. A year later, two further initiatives were started in Turkey. The three projects set up specialist organic cotton companies which became involved in the cotton chain from farm production to garment manufacture, and even created their own outlets. Further developments took place quite rapidly when environmentally responsible textiles became fashionable in the early 1990s, coinciding with the high profile of environmental issues in many countries. The fashion fad changed - as fashion fads must - but interest in organic cotton continued in what many would regard as a more sustainable way, with many actors committed for the medium to long-term.
European companies in Peru and India set up similar projects. These companies had not been involved in organic food production, but were prompted by increasing environmental regulation and the need to develop new specialist markets in the face of increasing pressure from mass textile production in low-wage countries. Some companies were also interested in improving the social conditions of producers.
At the same time, large cotton growers in the USA (mainly California, New Mexico, Arizona and Texas) were looking for ways to reduce or eliminate pesticide costs. Arable crops were already being grown without pesticides and fertilizers, so why not cotton? A market was developed in California, where fashion houses quickly recognized the market potential and were soon demanding organic cotton. The Texas Department of Agriculture established the first organic cotton certification programme in the late 1980s.
Organic cotton production and processing is still mainly at the experimental level. It currently occupies a niche market, but there are signs that it is moving into the mass market, with large companies taking an interest such as Coop in Switzerland, and Nike and Levi Strauss in the USA. The Coop, for example, which began selling organic fabrics in 1993, sold one million organic items in 1997.
The niche market provides the opportunity for learning through action and building capacity. The number of projects and experiments has continued to expand in the 1990s in all continents in both large-scale production systems (Australia and the USA) and small-scale (Egypt, India, Brazil, Peru, Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Senegal and Benin). In less than 10 years, organic cotton production has spread to more than 15 countries. However, it still remains a tiny fraction of global cotton production. In 1995, when production was over 12000 tonnes, it still represented only 0.06 per cent of total global cotton production. Table 1 gives estimates of organic cotton fibre production in 1997
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