The problem in perspective
The scale of food shortages has been established by
the Food and Agriculture Organisation. Jacques Diouf, its Secretary General,
says: "800 million people in the world (20% of the population of developing
countries, and up to 37% of sub-Saharan Africa) suffer from food shortages, 192
million children have chronic malnutrition. By 2030, humanity will have to face
the challenge of feeding 9 billion people as against 5.7 billion at present"
Globally, the portion of food per person increased by a third
between 1950 and 1984, but decreased by 7% between 1984 and 1989 and a further
decrease of 7% is anticipated between now and the year 2000. In Africa, an
individual's share has decreased by 20% from a maximum attained as the 1960s
came to a close. From being a net exporter of foodstuffs at the beginning of the
1960s, Africa has become a net importer. According to forecasts, if prices
remain steady, the cost of imports will rise to US$28 billion between now and
the year 2000 and receipts from exports will not exceed US$ 12 billion. Thus
food supplies in the Third World are heavily dependent on external sources such
as imports and food aid. The deficit in cereals alone could rise to 100
million tonnes by the beginning of the next century; of that more than half (58
million tonnes) will be in sub-Saharan Africa.
However, the statistics on food resources, and estimates of
food production and food security, relate only to a limited number of crops. The
study of averages does not always reflect the disparities which are obvious at
the local community level. The nutritional value of foodstuffs is based solely
on those elements whose properties are already familiar. Scientists estimate
that out of 13,000 known food plants, less than 20 (0.15%) currently provide the
major part of our food. Three plants (rice, wheat and maize) alone provide 40%
of the world's food, nine provide about 70%, and nineteen vegetable species
about 80%.
Decades of improving and promoting the few major crops have
led both planners and scientists to realise that food security for humanity will
not be assured simply by increasing the amount of food available on the
planet-by producing more wheat, more rice and more potatoes. In fact, in
certain circumstances the increase in production has the reverse effect: food
security at the local level is reduced as farming methods and local
populations are threatened.
'Minor' species (wild plants and animals, domesticated
and semi-domesticated) play a crucial role in food security and are the mainstay
of subsistence for poverty-stricken families and communities world-wide. The
policy of developing only cash crops poses a serious threat to the food security
and means of subsistence of millions of people.
Placing food security in a local context
Neglected local food resources
'Minor' cereals and 'pseudo-cereals: Our
regional food resources comprise a very large variety of other plants of
'minor' importance which are not cultivated over wide areas. Among them are
minor cereals and pseudo-cereals whose importance, far from being negligible, is
of the highest order for local people. Some are cultivated, some are gathered in
the wild. Such plants have three undeniable advantages. Firstly, they are
adapted to drought. Secondly, they are plants which grow on poor soils, unfit
for other crops. Thirdly, local people know how to use them. In addition, they
may well provide better nutrition than the major crops. The fonios (Digitaria
iburua in Nigeria and Digitaria exilis in the rest of west Africa)
grow on poor soil unsuitable for other cereals. They can grow with a rainfall of
500 mm and tolerate up to 3,000 mm. The English term 'hungry rice' well
describes the role of this little plant in the lives of the people who grow it.
Cultivation of fonios is being constantly reduced by the emphasis on the major
cereals. Even so it is estimated that 300,000 ha are still sown.
Two large grain fonio species, Brachiaria deflexa var.
saliva and Brachiaria ramosa have been identified as important food
sources in certain areas. In Africa, the seeds of kram-kram (Cenchrus
biflorus and Datyloctenium aegyptium) are harvested in times of
famine. In Ethiopia a staple cereal is teff (Eragrostis Abyssinica).
The genus Amaranthus grows world-wide but particularly in the tropics and
comprises many edible species. In Africa its leaves are used like spinach, in
Sierra Leone it is grown for its seeds.
Other local food resources: Néré
(Parkia biglobosa) has a fleshy fruit which is used in rural Africa in
emergencies when the grain stores are empty. The fermented seeds of néré
produce the much prized flavouring soumbala (in Mali) and nétérou (in
Senegal), which is a major feature of west African dishes.
Shea (Butyrospermum parkii) is a species found in
Sudan and the Sahel. The main product is its 'butter', which is an important
ingredient in many tropical regions of Africa. Often its medicinal function is
just as important-shea butter is used in several medicinal preparations.
The importance of local resources for
food security
Importance in diet: Secondary food resources
are very important in maintaining a balanced diet, particularly for women and
children in poor areas. Teff, for example, is remarkably rich in calcium and
iron. Dried leaves are characteristically rich in calcium and iron. The flesh of
the baobab fruit (Adansonia digitata) is very rich in vitamins (ascorbic
acid), B1 (thiamine), potassium and glucose.
The seeds contain 15% edible oil, and
flour made from them can contain up to 48% protein and 2% vitamins. The fruit of
Detarium senegalense, (or détah in Senegal), is very rich in vitamin C
(1,000 - 2,000 mg per 100g of edible medulla) . Nutritionally, fonio has an
exceptionally high methionine (350 mg/gN) content, an essential amino-acid.
Fonio is richer in cellulose than millet, sorghum or maize. It is thought that
the type of hydrocarbons in this grain help in the control of diabetes.
Hope for genetic resources: Even those wild plants which have no direct value as food, may have a genetic relationship to cultivated cereals which makes them valuable 'banks' for certain genes. There is real hope that teff (Eragrostis tef) may be improved since little-known varieties exist in the wild and constitute a reservoir of genes. The nearest varieties are Eragrostis pilosa and Eragrostis aethiopica. Teff's importance in Ethiopia justifies efforts to improve it locally and introduce it into areas with similar agro-climatic conditions.
Socio-economic importance within food security: Certain 'wild' species have significant economic value and as such provide an appreciable resource for poor families. Such products may even play a part in the national economy. The nuts of the shea are a significant item in both local and international trade, though it is difficult to estimate how much is produced.
Cultural importance: Many wild or semi-wild plants and animals have cultural significance for local people. Fonio, for example, has a central place in the cosmogony of the Dogon people in Mali and the same cereal is of such socio-cultural importance in the life of the Koniagui of east-central Senegal that an annual celebration is held in its honour.
Points for action
In developing policies for food security, planners
must be realistic. Points which must be taken into account are: evaluation of
each region's specific agro-climate; consideration for local food traditions
in the socio-cultural context; and conservation of plants and animals for
genetic diversity. A first step must be an inventory of species (animal and
plant) which directly or indirectly form part of subsistence and food security
at a local level. Financial institutions for their part should be prepared to
enable the fullest possible functioning of the services and groups involved at
all levels in the struggle against starvation and malnutrition:
Researchers and other scientists should:
set up inventories of local plants and animals so that they are better known;
set up trials in crop raising (or animal rearing) to determine optimum conditions;
select and breed the best strains and work on genetic improvement;
work on large scale popularisation of findings.
NGOs and grass-roots organisations
These groups have a vital role to play in the planning
and setting up of local programmes for food security. For example, they can
contribute information on food species and their local function; they are the
essential link between the findings of research and their popularisation for
general use. They may simply record the food security stock held in a village;
they may promote income-generating initiatives, conservation, and improvement in
local varieties. In collaboration with grass-roots groups, they can contribute
to the evaluation of neglected species. Many NGOs are already involved in
nutrition projects, particularly in connection with childbirth and infant care.
Sources
Baumer, M., Abores et abonisseaux nourriciers en Afrique occidentale, (Food producing trees and shrubs in West Africa). Enda Tiers-Monde. Enda-Editions, Dakar, Série Etudes et Recherches, 1995, No. 168-169-170, 260pp.
Bell, J., The Hidden Harvest, Seedling, Newsletter of GRAIN, (Genetic Resources Action International), October 1995, Vol 12, No 3, pp23-31.
Lopez, P.B., A new disaster for the plant world: uniformity, Ceres, Nov-Dec 1994, No. 150, Vol. 25, No. 6, pp41-47.
Ouattara, M., and Thiam, A., Food plants and vegetable foods in the Sahel, (in press).
Ouattara, M., Minor cereals and sustainable agriculture, pers. comm., 1994.
Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Role of Biology in Resolving the food crisis in Africa, Yamoussokro, Côte d,Ivoire, July 1989, ICSU/UNDP/UNESCO.
Moumouni Ouattara is an agronomist at
Environnement et Developpement du Tiers Monde (ENDA) [regional office for
PAN-Francophone Africa], BP 3370, Dakar, Senegal, Tel. +221 225 565, Fax +221
222 695, Email Moumouni_Ouattara@endadak.gen.apc.org
[This
article first appeared in Pesticides News No. 33 as part of the
Focus on Food supplement, September 1996,
pages 20-21]