Ukraine struggles with pesticides – women bear the brunt

Ukraine is largely an agricultural country. Women grow around 60% of vegetables, run the majority of the 12 million smallholdings, and form a significant part of the agricultural workforce. Intensive production remains the favoured policy, attracting the major agrochemical corporations. Yet pesticides have left a poor health and environmental legacy. Tatyana Stefanovska and Valentina Pidlisnuk report on the need for safer production.

The warm continental climate, fertile plains and plateaus of Ukraine provide a rich base for agriculture, which occupies 70% of the land(1). Covering an area of around 60 million ha, almost the size of Texas, and with a population of 50 million, Ukraine lies between the Black Sea, Russia and Poland. Agriculture provides employment for 22% of the population. An extraordinarily high average of 81% of agricultural land is cultivated, greatly exceeding levels in other Eastern European countries and in the US. This reflects the importance of the sector, which contributes 14% to the Gross Domestic Product. But the impacts of the agricultural production systems have been devastating, and are estimated to cause 35-40% of total environmental degradation(2).

Map used by permission of The General Libraries, The University of Texas at Austin, USA.

Agriculture and ecology 
The key problems of land degradation, soil and water contamination, and loss of biodiversity have seriously damaged not only the environment, but also the health of the population. The problems especially affect women and children, and have contributed to depopulation of rural areas. The level of soil erosion is a national tragedy, and has lowered the contents of humus, nutrients and other essential components in the soil, including the humus-rich black chernozem. The annual loss of humus is 20 million tonnes, and the deficiency is 100 kg/ha(3).
Soil is contaminated with chemical pesticides, heavy metals and acids, and radionuclides. Over 11% of cultivated land is polluted by pesticide residues(4), which primarily result from past practices.

Past and present pesticide use
Ukraine used to produce and consume high quantities of pesticides and chemical fertilisers. Their introduction began before the Second World War, and expanded from the early seventies, continuing to increase to the early nineties. Ukraine, Moldavia, Russia and Uzbekistan together account for 72% of the use of pesticide products in the Commonwealth of Independent States (former Eastern Europe)(5). The time of the most intensive application, specifically of highly toxic and persistent organochlorines, were the years between 1986-1987, when the level of use reached 3-4 kg/ha of arable lands(6).
    Many cases of pesticide poisoning happened during that period, but information was very restricted, and even now remains difficult to access. Recently information has come to light about massive levels of poisoning in the 1970s-1980s affecting women in five sugar beet farms in Cherksdkaya region, where polychlorcamphene was used to control Curculionidae and Chrisomelidae pests. The intensity of the treatment, the lack of protective clothing and labels, and absence of safety information or training, were common conditions. Women were not warned that they may be affected adversely by pesticides. 
    Pesticide production and use have both dropped significantly during the last ten years. In 1997, 24,000 tonnes of pesticides were applied, compared to 19,000 tonnes in 2001. The decrease results not from ecological concern, but from an increase in the appearance of new pesticides on the market that are active at considerably lower concentrations, and from economic realities – which mean that agricultural enterprises and farmers cannot afford to buy pesticides at previous levels. 
    The current application rate of pesticides is in the region of 0.7-1 kg/ha of arable land(7). In 2001 expenditure on pesticides was US$120 million. Ukraine operates a pesticide registration system, which includes 378 pesticides: 54 insecticides, 118 herbicides, 29 fungicides, 48 seed dressers, 15 growth regulators, five desiccants, five microbiological pesticides, 17 rodenticides, and 54 for household insect pests. For miscellaneous household plots, 39 pesticides are registered including 11 insecticides, 15 fungicide, two herbicides, and five rodenticides(8). Organophosphates and synthetic pyrethroids are the most common groups used for insect pests: by weight diazinon is the most applied, followed alpha cypermethrin and deltamethrin. Among herbicides 2,4-D is the most common. 
    Toxic residues have generally decreased in soil and food, with a reduction in the frequency of detection organochlorines in soil of 71% and in crops of 83% since the peak period of chemical application.
    According to Mr. Krasnopolsky, President of the Ukrainian plant protection association and General Director of JV Raisinvest, Ukraine’s affordable need in pesticides equals US$224 million, but potential demand equals almost US$1 billion. In 1999, agricultural firms were able to spend only US$74 million for pesticides. Of this total, US$40 million accounted for imported products(10).

In almost every Ukrainian village there is a problem storing obsolete pesticides which threaten the environment and people’s health.

New laws and policies
Registration of pesticides and fertilizers, whether local or imported, is compulsory and is the responsibility of the Commission of Chemical Security in the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources. Two main laws regulate pesticide consumption: the Pesticide and Agricultural Chemicals Law, adopted in 1996, and the Crop Protection Law, adopted in 1998.
    The past ten years have seen some changes in the monitoring of pesticide consumption. In the past this was under the remit of the Ministry of Agriculture, which has subdivisions in all regions. The regional subdivisions kept records of use, while the Ministry of Agriculture estimated pesticide requirements. The Ministry lost this responsibility in the mid-1990s and since then consumption requirements have been left to the market. The Plant Protection Association will now partly take on the function of estimating requirements. This Association has 49 members from foreign companies, local producers, and pesticides dealers and distributors in Ukraine. Some experts consider that the Association is promoting the interests of foreign companies and is not interested in introducing biological control agents, microbiologicals or other means of reducing the use of chemical pesticides(11). 

Obsolete pesticide problems
Obsolete pesticides continue to be among the most serious problems in the country. Pesticides residues, including highly toxic and persistent DDT and HCH can be found in the soil, water and crops in all regions of Ukraine(12). The principle source of soil pollution is misuse of pesticides and mineral fertilizers and improper storage of pesticides. 
    A significant contributing factor to contamination is the existence of obsolete pesticide stocks, which are leaking through the soil into ground water(13). Total stocks exceed 13,520 tonnes (see table 1) and they are found in 25 regions, although the amounts vary considerably from region to region. The largest, 1,820 tonnes, are in the Kiev region, posing extreme dangers for the three million residents of the capital city. Most of these stockpiles accumulated in the 1970s from temporary storage, and the conditions have deteriorated dramatically. Many are stored outdoors, and their containers are broken and leaking.(14)
    In spite of the fact that the majority of highly persistent and toxic pesticides were banned in Ukraine in the 1980s, some remain in use. Outbreaks of pests like locust (Locusta migratoria), cutworms (Agrotis segetum), stem and seed weevils (Curculionidae), wireworms (Elateridae) and grubs (Melolonthidae) have occurred in the last five years. To deal with these, 1,000 tonnes of obsolete pesticides have been used, including methafose 40%, BCH 25%, Dursban 40.85 c.e. (chlorpyrifos)(15).

Impacts on women
These agricultural pressures and pressures of economic transition contribute to a deterioration in the health of the total Ukrainian population, and to negative demographic change. People in the rural areas in particular are seriously suffering although the overall population rate began to drop in the early 1990s, depopulation of rural areas began in 1982. 
    To reduce the environmental and social problems, especially aspects of chemical pesticide contamination, Ukrainian agricultural planning and practice must adopt policies that promote sustainability. Chapter 14 of Agenda 21 clearly highlighted the importance of agricultural policies to reduce pesticide use, reduce exposure to pesticides, and enhance adoption of integrated pest management and biological controls. It stressed the importance of public participation and awareness raising, and of giving special consideration to women’s needs. What is the situation in Ukraine? Do women play an important role in implementing sustainable agriculture? Is there gender equality in the rural areas? Are the health risks from intensive agricultural practices greater for women than for men? 
    Women constitute the majority (54%) of the rural population in Ukraine, and play an important role in the agricultural labour force, as well as in production and preparation of food for their families. Yet their position is grossly unequal(16):

• women’s wages are only 70% of that of men
• more poor households are headed by women
• more than 43% of rural unemployed are women
• of the women with relevant education, only 5% are directors of the agricultural state farms, while of men with similar education, 50% hold a supervisory post
• on private farms, only 173 women are in managerial positions
• employment conditions are worse for women, who undertake 65% of agricultural labour
• with domestic responsibilities, rural women work 16 hours a day
• women agricultural workers are widely involved in pesticide application

Allotment holder with her produce in the Donbas region, Ukraine. Photo: ©1997, Wilton S. Tifft

On family land, women grow around 60% of fresh vegetables. Across Ukraine, the 12 million smallholdings occupy 15% of agricultural land, largely under the responsibility of women. In Western Ukraine, where around 40% of husbands work abroad, women buy and apply the pesticides. A survey of 50 women of childbearing age investigated the extent to which women understand the routes of exposure and the unique potential impacts on their health. All those interviewed apply pesticide application on the family farm (table 2).
    The questionnaire(17) indicates that Ukrainian women are not strongly concerned with pesticide exposure. Exposure is routine, because – unlike in Western countries – little attention is paid to occupational risk factors. The results of studies of potential impacts of pesticides on women’s health are not publicly available and the medical profession has little interest in the problem.
    Information on pesticide poisoning is notoriously under-estimated, and no regular monitoring of impacts has been carried out in Ukraine. However studies indicate that pesticides exposure has been associated with cancer of breast, testes and ovaries (18,19).The link between a range of reproductive health impacts in women and pesticide use have been shown in other studies(20-22). Research results have shown increasing incidence of miscarriage and delay in time to pregnancy among women agricultural workers exposed to pesticides. The most widely used herbicide in Ukraine is 2,4-D, which has been identified as an endocrine disrupting chemical(23,24). Carbamate and organophosphate insecticides have been reported to increase rates of premature birth and spontaneous abortion. Other pesticides such as aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane and toxaphene can also disrupt reproductive hormone cycle(25-29). A significant proportion of hormone disrupting pesticides, including pyrethroids and carbamates are used in Ukraine(30). Links between pesticide exposure and degenerative nervous diseases have also been demonstrated(31-33). In 1997 a comparative analysis of distribution of disease among women and men was published in Ukraine (table 3).
    Oncological diseases are frequently found among women of working age. Over the last seven years, the frequency of breast cancer has increased by 17.5%, womb cancer by 13.1%, ovarian cancer 3.5%(34). An analysis of the distribution of disease in Ukrainian women supports the concern that some diseases are caused by pesticide exposure.
    Ukrainian women, especially those in the rural areas are most affected by environmental degradation(35). These women are primarily those who dig land contaminated by the radionuclides and pesticides residues soil in order to grow potatoes (the second staple food in the Ukraine), and spray pesticides without wearing protective clothing. 

Women leading change
Ukrainian women can take the lead on activities to protect the environment and to promote sustainable agriculture. Ukraine is taking its first steps toward sustainable agriculture and faces a number of difficulties. Progress is affected by many factors: economic instability; implementation of land reform; the need to create regulations and rules to implement the ‘Land Code’ adopted on October 2001; poor access to information in rural areas about the state of the environment; and a low ecological consciousness among the population in rural areas(36).
    However, there are good conditions for sustainable agriculture(37). The climatic conditions are highly suitable, the land has high productive potential, and technology is advanced for soil protection, land recultivation, integrated pest management, and biological control of pests. In relation to biological controls, natural entomopathogens and microbiological pesticides were used widely in the late 1970s to the early 1990s. During that time 268 laboratories to mass rear useful insects and microbiological pesticides existed(38). Biocontrol was used on 8,065,000 ha, and release of the egg parasitoid Trichogramma spp shares 80%(39). After 1991 40% of the laboratories stopped working(40,41). Consequently, outbreaks of Lepidoptera pests appeared, especially the European corn borer on maize (Zea mays). If Ukraine now takes all possible steps to renovate the ‘era of biocontrol’, it would be possible to produce biological control products, including entomopathogens and microbiological pesticides locally at much lower costs than importing. Recognition of the importance of eco-friendly pest control at State and local level could radically improve the situation(42). Financial support is important, but governments also need to develop appropriate policies and implement appropriate laws(43).
    The important role of public participation and NGOs in this process cannot be stressed enough, especially women’s role in promoting environmental awareness and stimulating the legal and institutional frameworks needed to promote alternatives to pesticides(44-46). There is a great need for public awareness and information dissemination. The risk to health from environmental contamination with pesticides highlights the importance of public ‘ownership’ of environmental education(47,48).
    Building civil society capacity will promote sustainable agriculture(49). There are few ecologically orientated NGOs in Ukraine, and even fewer with pesticides as a focal point. The Center of Sustainable Development and Ecological research ‘Women in Agrarian Education’ was created in order to disseminate the principles sustainable development in Ukrainian agriculture, and to initiate women’s capacity building. Activities regarding pesticide reduction as the primary principal of sustainable agriculture should focus on environmental education and ecological awareness-raising among of women in rural areas, and lobbying for adoption of legislation for pesticide reduction strategies at local and State levels. 

Round-table on pesticides and POPs Convention
Dr Valentina Pidlisnyuk and Dr Tatyana Stefanovska initiated a Round-table on the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) after participating in the PAN Europe conference in Bremen of November 2001. The programme aimed to introduce the POPs Convention to relevant NGOs, governmental officials and the public. Two governmental officials from the Ecological Committee of Ukrainian Parliament ‘Verchovna Rada’ attended the event as well as three scientists in agroecology from the Institute of Agroecology. The programme addressed:

• the POPs Convention: background and necessity
• the importance of the POPs Convention for improving the ecological situation of rural areas in Ukraine
• the state of agriculture in Ukraine and implementing sustainable development principles 
• results of an evaluation of the state of two storage facilities of obsolete pesticides
• possibilities of disposing of obsolete pesticides by means of chemical transformation 
• pesticides and POPs
• gender mainstreaming activities in POPs elimination

Participants adopted a proposal for addressing the problems of chemical pesticides in Ukraine, and submitted it to the representative of Ecological Committee of Ukrainian Parliament.

References
1. Soziniov, O.O., Principles of development of agricultural spear in Ukraine. Collection of articles of Institute of Farming Ukrainian Academy of Agrarian Science, 1999. (Ukr.)
2. Saiko, V.F,. Farming in XXI century: problems and ways to resolve, Collecting articles of Research Institute of Farming, Ukrainian Academy of Agrarian Science, 1999. (Ukr.)
3. Sozinov, O.O., Agrarian Sheaer of Ukraine in XXI century, Bulletin of National Academy of Science, 2001, 10. (Ukr.)
4. National report about state of environment in Ukraine in 2001, Rayevskogo Publishing House, Kiev, 2001. (Ukr.)
5. Valentin, D., The problem and obsolete pesticides disposal in Ukraine: Solution, ecology and economy, Forum book on 6 International HCH and pesticide Forum, 20-22 March 2001, Poznan, Poland, 143-147.
6. Starchevskyu, I.P., Biologization of Farming: fashion or demand, Plant Protection, 1999, 12:4-7. (Ukr.) 
7. Ibid.
8. List of pesticides have been registered in 2002 in Ukraine, Ministry of Ecology, Council of Chemical Security, Kiev, 2002.
9. Loseva, I., Babus, B. and Bovetti, K., Ukraine: Agricultural Chemicals Market Updates, US and Foreign Commercial Service and US Department of State, 7 November 2001.
10. Ibid.
11. Tribel S.O., The certain norms -"by eye" . Use of plant protection products in precision farming, Plant Protection, 2002, 10:1-2. (Ukr.)
12. Op. cit. 4.
13. Op. cit. 5.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid.
16. Melnik, T., Gender Analysis of Ukrainian Society, 1999, UNDP, Kiev.
17. Women awareness about risk that pesticide pose their health. Sociological survey conducted by Centre of Sustainable development and ecological research, 2001.
18. Environmental Links to Women and health Breast Cancer Campaign Summary, WEDO, New- York.
19. Kello, D., Chemical safety agenda for Europe – priority public health actions beyond 200. Forum book on 6 International HCH and pesticide Forum, 20-22 March 2001, Poznan. Poland, 53-63.
20. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 1997. 31: 442-444.
21.Edwards, C.A. and House, G., Sustainable Agricultural Systems, Soil and Water Conservation Society, 1990, 696 p.
22. Butter, M.E., Risk Health and Environment, NGO background document for the Third Ministerial Conference, London, June, 1999, Rijks University Groningen.
23. Ibid.
24. Protecting Future Generations, Toxic Chemicals – Effect on Human Reproductive Health and Child Development Report on the WECF workshop, The Hague, 16, March 2000.
25. Women’s Caucus to the UN Commission on Sustainable Development: 2000- 2002.
26. Op. cit. 20.
27. Bernard et. al., Food Contamination by PCBs and Dioxins Nature, 1999, 16.
28. Op. cit. 25.
29. Raloff J., That Feminine Touch Science News 145, 1994, 3:56.
30. Op. cit. 8.
31. Shettler, T., Stein,J., Reich, F. and Valenti, M., In Harm’s Way: Toxic Threats to Child Development. Greater Boston Physicians for Social Responsibility, 2000, p.66.
32. Colborn, T., Dumanski,T. and Peterson Myers, J., Our Stolen Future, New-York Penguin Group, 1996. 
33. Purdey, M., Degenerative Nervous Diseases and Chemical Pollution. The Ecologist, 1994 , 23, 3:100.
34. Alachadze, M., and Alachadze, T., Women’s health through the prism of medical care, demography, sociology, 2000, 4: 28-34. (Ukr.)
35. Op. cit. 25.
36.Tregobchuk, V.M., Concept of sustainable development of national agricultural complex, Challenges in sustainable development of Ukraine, K.-NANU, 1998, 93-95. (Ukr.) 
37. Op. cit. 1.
38. Shelestova, V.S., Padyi, M.M., Goncharenko, O.I., Goncharuk, O.K. and Kolisnichenko, V.S., How we can protect agricultural crops without the threat of the environment, Plant Protection , 1999, 10:2-5. (Ukr.)
39. Ibid.
40. Kilisnichenko V., Some Perspectives for Crop Protection Programme 2002, Proposition, #4 2000. (Ukr.)
41. Stefanovska, T.R. and Shelestova V.S. and Goncharenko, O.I., The use of Biological control for Cydia pomonella L. management in Ukraine. California Conference on Biological control. July. 2000. 183-187. 
42. Jack E. Rechecigi, Biological and biotechnological control of insect pests. Levis Publisher, 1998. 375 p.
43. Op. cit. 11.
44. Agenda 21, Kiev Intel-shear Publishing , Kiev, 2000. (Ukr.)
45. PAN Europe Position on Good Agricultural Practice, October 2000.
46. Op. cit. 25.
47. Belyavskiy G.O., Sozinov O.O. and Kopilevich V.A. Problems and ways of development of agro ecological education in Ukraine, Agroecology and Biotechnology, 2000, 4:13-17. (Ukr.)
48. Pimentel, D., Culney, T.W. and Bashore, T., Public risks associated with pesticides and natural toxins in foods, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University, Comstock Hall, Ithaca, New York.
49. Op. cit. 21.

Tatyana Stefanovska and Valentina Pidlisnuk, Center, Sustainable Development and Ecological research ‘Women in Agrarian Education’, National Agricultural University, 14 Geroev Oborony, Kiev 03041,Ukraine, steftat@hotmail.com; pidlis@carrier.kiev.ua

[This article first appeared in Pesticides News No. 57, September 2002, pages 12-15]